The Stateless people of Burma: A Report

Sourabh Tiwary

What is the cause of this genocide? And, is it really genocide? From the last two months, ethnic clashes between Rohingya Muslims and Rakhine Buddhists in the Rakhine state of Myanmar have left a 100 people dead. President Thein Sein says that the only solution for Rohingya problem is deportation. According to him, Rohingyas are illegal immigrants in Myanmar that have sneaked into Rakhine from the Chittagong region of neighbouring Bangladesh. Even the Nobel Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi is shying from commenting on this issue. But, why is this so? In this article, I will try to understand the basic reasons behind the Rohingya problem and why almost no one is supporting their cause in Myanmar.

The original Burman people arrived from the modern day Yunnan province in China until the 9^th century AD and settled in and around the northern parts of fertile Irrawaddy valley. They were the followers of Theravada Buddhism. These people formed fortified settlements in that area. Anawrahta Minsaw unified all the separate principalities in the north Irrawaddy area and unified them to form Pagan Empire.

Pagan Empire grew steadily from 1044 to 1287 AD. It was a wealthy kingdom that profited from agriculture and trade. A large part of this wealth was utilised in building thousands of Buddhist temples. When the lower regions of China were conquered by Mongols, Pagan Empire became the target of frequent attacks and looting. Finally in the year 1287, Pagan Empire was sacked by the Mongols.

Several different kingdoms started to arise in Burma after the end of Pagan Empire. The major kingdoms were Ava, Shan States and Hanthawaddy. These kingdoms usually went on to war with each other in order to expand their territories. In 1480s, Ava Kingdom was under constant attack from Shan states. Internal rebellion and external attacks finally disintegrated Ava Kingdom. The Toungoo state in the south-east Ava declared independence and under the leadership of King Tabinshweti and Gen. Bayinnaung, started a series of conquest and expansion.

Toungoo state went on to become the largest South-East Asian kingdom in history, stretching from the modern day Manipur in India to Siam. This kingdom remained almost stable with a few disturbances from 1599 to 1752 AD.  In its final years, Manipur, Siamese and Hanthawaddy regions had conflicted against Toungoo state and started attacking it. This led to the end of a glorious 250 years reign of Toungoo dynasty.

The next kingdom to arise in the power vacuum left after the demise of Toungoo was Konbaung dynasty. Konbaung started waging several wars in east, north and south-west. Because of the belligerent China and Siam in the north and east, Konbaung King Bodawpaya attacked Arakan (Modern Day Rakhine) and defeated it.

This was the first time in history that Arakan state came under the rule of Myanmar.

The Pagan Empire in 1044. Notice the
Free Arakan region

Arakan is located at the western coast of Myanmar. It is surrounded by Chittagong region in North-West, Chin State in north and Bay of Bengal in West. It is separated from the rest of Myanmar by Arakan and Chin Hills which rise up to 3000 meters. This geographical relief is one of the reasons why the different Myanmar kingdoms (Pagan, Ava, Shan and Toungoo etc.) were unable to capture Arakan. All this time, when Myanmar went through various political upheavals, Arakan was pretty peaceful and stable under the Mrauk-U kingdom. Mrauk-U was established by King NaraMeikhla. He enjoyed good relations with the Muslim Sultan of Bengal. The port city of Mrauk-U was also a principal centre of trade with Arabs and Europeans (Portuguese).  The majority of people in Arakan were and still are Rakhine Buddhists. Arabs had settled in Arakan since 8^th century. Due to the proximity with Muslim Bengal state, various Muslim farmers migrated into Arakan as farmers and traders.

Rohingya can be argued to be the same Muslims that came to Arakan from Chittagong during the 14^th-15^th century. Arakan history expert Dr. Jacques P. Leider points out that the term Rooinga was used in a late 18th century report published by the British Francis Buchanan-Hamilton. In his 1799 article “A Comparative Vocabulary of Some of the Languages Spoken in the Burma Empire,” Buchanan-Hamilton stated: "I shall now add three dialects, spoken in the Burma Empire, but evidently derived from the language of the Hindu nation. The first is that spoken by the Mohammedans, who have long settled in Arakan, and who call themselves Rooinga, or natives of Arakan. Rohingyan language is an Indo-European language that has similarities with the Chittagonian language. This indicates the Chittagonian origin of the Rohingya People.

In the years 1782, Arakan came under Konbaung Dynasty. The uprising of the Arakan people against the Konbaung rulers and army was dealt with an iron fist. Thousands of Arakanese, both Buddhists and Muslims were killed. In the 19^th century, Konbaung dynasty was neutralized by British East India Company. After the three Anglo-Burmese wars, Myanmar came under the direct control of the British Empire.

Photograph of vegetable stand outside the Madras Lancer Lines, Mandalay, Burma. (1886)

Under the British, Myanmar became one of the richest states in South East Asia. The fertile plains in Arakan and Irrawaddy valley became the hot spots of Paddy agriculture. But the benefit of economic growth was not provided to the local Burmese population. So, as much the British Empire benefitted from the Paddy production, the people in Arakan became poor and poor. To reap the maximum benefits, British encouraged cheap labour from Bengal to migrate and settle in Arakan. Most of these people who migrated to Arakan were Muslims. This immigration went on happening until the independence of Myanmar.

Britishers were wary of the animosity between Rohingya Muslims and Rakhine Buddhists. But in the wake of the Second World War, British left several parts of Myanmar that were later captured by the Japanese. This period saw the rise of intense ethnic clashes in Arakan in which thousands of Rohingyas were killed. The reason for this can be that Rakhine Buddhists wanted to capture the arable land from the Rohingyas whom they considered to be foreign immigrants. The economic angle of this conflict can be well established. The Rakhines must have blamed the cheap labourers from Bengal for their poverty and unemployment. Whenever there is a riot, most of the people participate in it for their own personal financial gains. During the Holocaust when millions of Jews were killed in concentration camps, their properties were confiscated by SS Soldiers and higher Nazi officials. Infact, Hermann Goring, the Reichmarshall under Adolf Hitler amassed huge personal fortune with the money plundered from the Jews. In the Gujarat Riots (2004, India), Hundreds of Muslims were killed. The video recordings from various Shopping Malls owned by Muslims show how even moderately rich Hindus would loot electronic items etc in the riots. Riots and events of genocide represent a breakdown in the fabric of civil society. For most of the people, this breakdown also resonates with the breakdown of their own morality. At this time, anything is permissible for them. This can be said about the Rakhine and Rohingya clashes in Arakan too.

Because of the free migration of Muslims in and out of Arakan, a majority of Rohingya Muslims (Rohingya and others) became concentrated towards the northern side of Arakan near Chittagong region. In the year 1940s, Myanmar was moving forward towards independence from both its British and Japanese masters.  Due to the fear of abuse under Myanmar’s government and for their own recognition as a distinct ethnic group, Rohingyas formed an army to fight for their independence. This army was called Mujahid Army. By 1947, this army had approached Mohammad Ali Jinnah of the newly created Pakistan and asked him to incorporate North Arakan in East Pakistan (Bangladesh). This proposal was denied by Jinnah and the then British government. Many observers speculate that it was this disloyal action by the Rohingyas that led to the group's present problems with the government because the state still views the Rohingyas as untrustworthy.

Rohingyas were not the only ethnic group that had asked for a separate independent state from Myanmar. The Karen people (Current population, 7 million) of South-East state and Shan people (Current population, 6 million) of East state had also asked for separate independence. Some people from these groups formed resistance armies and started waging war against the government. Myanmar got independence on 4^th January, 1948. Its first prime-minister Thatin Nu wanted to make Myanmar a welfare state for each of its citizens. In the year 1951, National registration Cards were issued to Myanmar citizens. The Rohingyas, Karen, Shan as well as all the other ethnic groups became the citizens of the democratic nation of Myanmar.

Ne Win was the Chief of Army Staff under the Thatin Nu government. In 1958, Nu asked Ne Win to become the temporary head of the Myanmar state to suppress armed rebellion and secessionist movements in different parts of the country. This proved to be a fatal mistake. Ne Win stepped down in 1960 and allowed for a general election. Although a minority of Rohingyas were fighting for a separate Islamic state in Arakan, majority of Rohingyas showed full trust in the government and voted in large numbers. Thatin Nu was voted the prime-minister in 1960 General Elections.

General Ne Win

This reminds of the 2008, Jammu and Kashmir election in India. The situation of J&K is same as pre- 1962 Arakan. A large number of terrorist and separatist groups are fighting for independence against Indian government. Yet, in 2008 elections, 60% of voters turned out and showed their faith in the Indian Democracy and Constitution.

In the year, 1962, Ne Win along with 16 other military officers, staged a coup d'état and overthrew the democratically elected Thatin Nu government. That was the end of an era in Myanmar.  Ne Win brought hardcore Socialist and Marxist ideas in his military government. In order for a military dictator to rule in a country, he must inculcate a central unifying idea for most of the citizens of his state. Since the dawn of civilization, nations and tyrants have used religion and nationalism as a tool to fool and control the minds of the poor and gullible people. Ne Win also used the same old tools – Theravada Buddhism (Religion) and Socialist Nationalism. Any uprising and protest was heavily suppressed in his regime.

In 1978, Ne Win launched “Operation Dragon King’’ in all over the country. This military search was meant to identify illegal immigrants living without Citizenship Papers in the country. A wave of terror ran down in Northern Arakan region. Around, 250,000 Rohingya Muslims fled from Arakan to Bangladesh. It can be inferred that a large majority of Rohingyas fled because of the gross human right abuses committed by army. Incidentally, such abuses are common in any place where Army is given power over the civilian population or are allowed to act with impunity [Example:- Assam, Kashmir, West Bank, Iraq and Afghanistan etc]. But it can also be logically argued that because of the porous boundary between Arakan and Bangladesh, many of the Muslims living there were infact illegal immigrants.

Although Ne Win recognised the Karen and Shan people as the citizens of Myanmar in his 1982 Citizenship Diktat, the 800,000 Rohingya people were stripped of their citizenship rights. One reason behind this diktat can be the discovery of a large number of illegal Rohingyas in northern region of Arakan during Operation Dragon-King. Many of the Rohingyas also showed nationalistic inclination towards Bengal more than Myanmar. Some of the people of this group had been fighting in armed resistance against Myanmar government. It can be argued that the Ne Win government felt that majority Rohingyas secretly supported the Mujahid army in Arakan. This apprehension and mistrust is a major reason of the ostracizing and abuse of the Rohingya Muslims of Myanmar.

Paddy Farming is the major source of income in Rakhine

 During his military regime, Ne Win brought several Socialist and Marxist economic reform programmes under the banner of ‘’Burmese way to socialism”. All commodities in Myanmar were nationalized. Foreign aid from World Bank, Ford and Asia foundation was banned. Visa was strictly reduced for just 24 hours for any foreigner wanting to visit Myanmar. Extensive visa restrictions were placed for any Burmese citizen wanting to go to any western country for education or Job. Many newspapers were censored and foreign companies were sacked.

Now, let us have a look at Arakan (Renamed Rakhine by Ne Win government). The economy has collapsed. Rice production has shrunk by two-third. Job and Labour market is saturated. Naturally, the survival instincts in the majority Rakhine Buddhists would push them towards hating the Rohingya people that are eating off their share of jobs and resources. One factor that would neutralize the guilt in Rakhines would be the thinking that Rohingyas can leave their country anytime and go back to where they had come from. For most of the people, Morality comes by abiding to the laws of the state. When the state called the Rohingyas as Illegal, the Rakhine Buddhists started to treat them as illegal and someone lower than themselves. This is the same reason why the Germans started to hate Jews after the declaration of the Nuremberg laws. I have heard the same reasons from many Indians too.  Many Indians think that the reason for extensive poverty in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar states is the presence of millions of Illegal Bangladeshis living in this country. I wonder what would happen if the Indian government targeted a section of Muslims and called them illegal immigrants, thus stripping them of their citizenship rights.

It has to be noticed that the previous democratic governments had considered Rohingyas as the citizens of Myanmar. Since 1981, the violent protests in Myanmar had forced the Military dictatorship under Ne Win to finally step down in 1988. This was not enough, however, to stop growing turmoil in the country, compounded by periodic 'demonetization' of certain bank notes in the currency, the last of which was decreed in September 1987 wiping out the savings of the vast majority of people.

A multiparty election was held in 1990 in which, ‘’National party for democracy’’ won landslide victory. But the Military government did not recognise the democratically elected government and kept Aung San Suu Kyi in house arrest. U.S and European Union placed several economic sanctions on Myanmar. Slowly and steadily, many political reforms have happened in Myanmar since then. NLD has been given a restricted position in the government and Aung San Suu Kyi has been released.

Since 2011, a new constitution has been adopted in Myanmar. Army still plays a powerful role in the government. In the By-Elections of 2010, NLD won a landslide victory. Aung San Suu Kyi has become the face of democracy and peaceful resistance in the world. The government has relaxed press and internet censorship laws, for example allowing photographs of Aung San Suu Kyi to be published on the front page of local newspapers. Still, uncertainties linger on the future of Myanmar. We cannot say, what will happen tomorrow. The seeds of division that were sowed by the tyrant regime of Ne Win in Arakan have only reaped hatred.

Rohingyas fleeing from Rakhine to Bangladesh

On May 28 of this year, 3 Muslims including 2 Rohingya raped a Rakhine Woman in Arakan state in Myanmar. On June 4, a mob attacked a bus in Taungup, mistakenly believing those responsible for the murder were on board. Ten Muslims were killed in the reprisal attack. Retaliatory attacks have started since then between Rohingya Muslims and Rakhine Buddhists. According to government figures, approximately 100 people have been killed in the riots. Around 90,000 people have become homeless.

The violence has been contained to a large part. But the justice has not yet been delivered. What is the fate of the Rohingya people? Thousands of Rohingya Muslims are living since the days of Operation Dragon-King in refugee camps in the neighbouring Bangladesh. Bangladesh does not permit any more refugees. Also, according to Human Rights watch, the condition of Refugees in Bangladesh is pathetic. They do not have running water, medicine or toilets. Where are United Nations and United States in this situation? Aren’t they going to interfere and bring the gift of democracy (As they did in Syria, Libya, Iraq and Afghanistan) to this country?

Recommendations:

1.      Current Myanmar Government is of a unitary type. This means that there has been no delegation of power by the Central government to the states. But the different ethnic groups in Myanmar have a long history and culture of their own. Therefore, only a federal government can work in that country. Myanmar should be made, The Burmese Federation of States, just like India and USA.

2.      The borders at Arakan-Chittagong region should be sealed and an international team should be maintained there to supervise and check illegal immigration and Human Rights Violation.

3.      Rohingya Population that had been provided citizenship under Thatin Nu government should be immediately provided Citizenship Cards, thus by a parliamentary amendment of 1982 laws.

4.      A free and impartial general election should be held in Myanmar under the strict supervision of IPKF and UN.

5.      Members of Military junta that had committed atrocities in Myanmar should be prosecuted under war crimes and crimes against humanity.

6.      Immediate economic reforms are required in Myanmar to alleviate the suffering of millions of people living in unemployment, insecurity and hunger. Myanmar should open its market for foreign private players.

7.      The remnants of Mrauk-U dynasty in Arakan attract thousands of tourists. Visa restrictions should be removed and investment should be encouraged in Arakan to attract more and more tourists.

8.      The HRW and Amnesty International have noted the active role of Buddhist Army personnel’s in committing atrocities like rape, looting and murder against Rohingya Muslims. One reason behind this is the decades of promotion of nationalism under the banner of Theravada Buddhism by both Thatin Nu and Ne Win governments. Such a policy by government alienates the minorities of the country. Myanmar should adopt a western model of secular government in its constitution.


References: 

- Burma: Information on Rohingya Refugees / www.unhcr.org

- Exiled to Nowhere / www.exiledtonowhere.com

- Brief history on centuries long persecution / www.twocircles.net

- Rohingya: History, Myth and Reality / www.burmadigest.info

- Myanmar''s Rohingya being targeted / www.dawn.com

- History of Myanmar / www.wikipedia.com

- Economy of Myanmar / www.wikipedia.com

- Rakhine state / www.wikipedia.com

- Rohingya people / www.wikipedia.com

- Burma troops kill Rohingya muslims / www.globalpost.com

- Abuses against Rohingya erode human right progress / www.amnesty.org